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The combinations of two or more letters to designate one sound (comparing a diacritical Š against Fr. CH, it. SCH, English for the designation of the Russian sound and the letter "sh"). Diacristers are used both with vowels and consonant letters. The main disadvantage of diacritics is the clogging of the letter to small, but important details whose omit may lead to serious errors, for example, when reading the Quran on arabic . There are languages \u200b\u200bin which diactic signs are not so common (Russian) or practically not used (English). In some cases, there is a tendency to displacing diacritional letters of the Digraphs (German: Ö\u003e OE in printed text and computerization).

History

Ancient diacritical signs were probably notable for longitude and shorts in Greek, as well as the Greek stress signs.

Diacritis are most widely used in languages \u200b\u200bhaving a Latin alphabet. This is due to the fact that in the classic Latin language there were no hissing sounds, nasal vowels, palatalized (softened) vowels, which were or developed in other languages, especially unrelated. So, if in Italian it is possible to transfer hissing purely positional (for example, in the word Città "Chitta" - "city", where C + I automatically means a hissing sound), then in other languages \u200b\u200bnot related to Latin, it is impossible. The most uploaded by sound-sensitive diacries Czech, Slovak, Turkish, Romanian, Polish, Lithuanian, Vietnamese. In Portuguese and French strong diacriticalization, vowels (ê, è, ë, ï, Ã) are subjected to both sound and sense-sensitive and purely etymological: îl< лат. insula "остров". В романских языках имеется и особых диакритизованный согласный ç, в испанском - буква ñ, возникшая в результате надстрочного "двухэтажного" написания двух букв nn в латинских словах типа annum > Anno\u003e Ao "Year".

Classification

Diacritical signs can be classified in various ways.

1. At the place of drawing: Fast, substitution, intristic.

2. By means of drawing: freely attached to the main sign or requiring change and its form.

3. According to the phonetic and spelling value (the classification of incomplete and category is not mutually exclusive):

  • signs having a phonetic value (affecting pronunciation):
    • signs that give the letter a new sound value other than the usual alphabetical (for example, Czech č, ř, ž );
    • signs specifying any sound pronunciation options (for example, French é, è, ê );
    • signs indicating that the letter saves its standard value in such an environment when its sound should change (for example, the French ü, ï );
    • promotional signs (clarifying quantitative parameters of sound: duration, strength, height, etc.):
      • signs of longitude and shorts of vowels (for example, ancient Greek ᾱ, ᾰ );
      • musical tones signs (for example, Chinese ā, Á, ǎ, À, a);
      • strain signs (for example, Greek "sharp", "heavy" and "clothed" stress: ά, ὰ, ᾶ );
  • signs with only spelling value, but not affecting pronunciation:
    • signs to avoid omographic (for example, in Church Slavonic creature. Pad. units "Small" and dates. Pad. Mute numbers "Mal"; in Spanish Si "If" and sí "yes");
    • signs that are not denoted and used by tradition (for example, the silence in Church Slavonic, which is always written over the first letter of the word, if there is a vowel);
  • signs of hieroglyphic value (are considered diacritical only from the position of typography):
    • signs pointing to abbreviated or conditional spelling (for example, Title in Church Slavonic);
    • signs indicating the use of letters for other purposes (the same titles in the Cyrillic recording of numbers).

4. According to the formal status:

  • signs that are formed by new letters of the alphabet (in Western terminology they are sometimes called modifiers, and not actually with diacritical signs);
  • signs, combinations of letters with which are not considered a separate letter (such diacritical signs usually do not affect the order of alphabetical sorting).

5. For use:

  • signs, the absence of which makes the text spelling incorrect, and sometimes unreadable,
  • signs used only in special circumstances: in books for initial reading, in sacred texts, in rare words with ambiguous reading, etc.

If necessary (for example, in the case of technical constraints), a diacritical sign may drop, sometimes with inserting or replacing the letter letters.

Equally looking diacritical signs can have a different value, name and status in various languages \u200b\u200band letters systems.

The assignment of a particular element of the graphic system to the diacritical signs is largely conditional. So, in modern Russian writing you can find "diacritical signs" of varying unattended (from absolute to almost zero):

  • strokes - put only in rare cases and do not form new letters;
  • colon over "" - forms a new letter, but usually descends;
  • brief over "" - forms a new letter and never goes out;
  • uppering and emphasising the same-looking letters when writing t. (m. ) I. sh (sh );
  • the letter "b" as such (can be considered a diacritic sign at the previous consonant);
  • the wand in "" and the tail in "" are inalienable parts of the corresponding letters, but can be perceived as a diacritical signs with a formal analysis and comparison of the alphabet letters.

Main diacritical signs

Comment. There are no well-established Russian names for most diacritical signs. Currently compete:

  • the traditional philological system in which one (in shape) of the sign can be a lot of titles used depending on which language is about: so, the same tower in relation to the German language will be called "worn" (in The last time will also be "silent"), to the French - "Trema", and to Russian - most often simply "two points";
  • approximate descriptions of the form ("bird", "Lid", "Hook", etc.);
  • trading with English computer terminology (primarily from Unicode), which even in the original is sufficiently conditional, controversial and internally contradictory.

Additionally complicates the situation and the fact that two different signs in the same language can be interchangeable font options.

Description, Code Example Possible use

Unlightened fellow signs

Refractory
U + 0301.
á acute stress: Greek. and C.-sl. DCAY, LAT. acutus. (Akut), FR. accent Aigu (Aksan Egu) , eng. acute.; Used in Greek, Romanesque, Slavic and MN. Dr. Languages
ń , ѓ damn (Polish. kreska.) in Polish indicates a specific mitigation of consonants, and above ó - pronunciation as [u]; The same softening value is used in Luzitsky, Croatian, Macedonian and some other languages.
á in Czech, Slovak and Hungarian - the longitude rate of vowels
\\ny touch over the letter
U + 0300.
à heavy emphasis: Greek. and C.-sl. Varia, Lat. gravis. (Gravis), Fr. accent Grave., eng. grave.; Used in Greek (Polytonian spelling), Romanesque (primarily in French), South Slavic and MN. Dr. Languages
hood over the letter
(^ --shaped: U + 0302,
Round: U + 0311,
St.-Sl. Sign softness: U + 0484,
above a pair of letters: U + 0361)
â baked accepted: Greek. and C.-sl. Camora or Perisputa, Lat. circumFlexus. (Circumflex), FR. accent Circonflexe., eng. circumFlex; Used in Greek (Polytonian spelling), Romanesque (primarily in French), Serbian, C.-sl. and mn. Dr. languages; In classic languages, the cap is usually round or even (in Greek) in the form of the Tilda (see below), in French, sometimes in Serbian - pointed
ĉ , ĝ , ĥ , ĵ , ŝ in the Language of Esperanto, the first symbol ^ is officially called "Cirkumflex" (ESP. "Cirkumflekso"), unofficially "cap" (ESP. "ĉapelo"); modifies reading relevant consonants without a "cap" so that they are readable as Russian c., diezh, h., j. and sh (about)
î in Romanian, sharp hat over â and î means reading them as [s]
ê, ŝ in some systems of the Latin transliteration of Cyrillic through ê may be transmitted letter "E", and through ŝ - Letter "Shch"
j͡ D. in some transcription systems, a round cap over a group of letters denotes their fusion pronunciation (affrier)
in the old Slavonic, a round haap above the consonant (sometimes somewhat displaced to the right) means its softness
â in the Turkish hat over the vowelnoy meant the softness of the previous consonant, could also designate the longitude of the vowel (used in borrowings from Arabic); After writing reform in the 1990s "Cap" was canceled, although sometimes continues to be used.
fearful colon
U + 0308.
ë sign of separate reading of letters: Greek. Diaeresis or Dialytika, Greek. and fr. trema. (diaeresis); Used in Greek, Romanesque and Nek. Dr. languages \u200b\u200b(sometimes even in English)
ä they will be cleaned - the sign of German and some other German written words, indicating the pronunciation of some vowels changed ("mitigated"); Borrowed also by some other languages \u200b\u200b(for example, Finnish, Hungarian, Turkish and Slovak)
e. the colon is part of the Russian (and Belorussian) letter "E"
ї the colon is part of the Ukrainian letter "ї" [yi]
ї , ѵ̈ in Church Slavonic Kendem, that is, two points (either two strokes // or \\\\, which was equivalent), put on the letter i. and Izhitsa ( ѵ ) In the case when they are read as [and] and do not have other sudden signs (accents or intimacy)
ӥ in the phonetic transcription of Russian text: a change in the vowel caused by the position between soft consonants
// over the letter
U + 030b.
ő , ű "Hungarian worry": ő and ű Mean long options for sounds expressed by letters ö and ü
ѵ̋ ѵ̈
\\\\ above the letter
U + 030F.
and serbian: brief downward accent
ѷ in Church Slavonic: Font Options ѵ̈ (for Izhitsa the most common, but ї more often painted with dots or vertical strokes)
padded circle
U + 030A.
å in some Scandinavian languages \u200b\u200bthrough å denoted for a long [A], which passed in [o]; Registration Å - Notation of angstroms
ů in Czech, with a mug (Czech. Kroužek) through ů denoted long
point
U + 0307.
i., j. included in the composition of the lowercase letters i. and j. most languages \u200b\u200bwith Latin and some with Cyrillic writing (when adding any other supreme sign, the point is usually removed); In some languages \u200b\u200b(for example, in Turkish), the letter differ i. With a point (in Turkish, it is read as [and]) and without a point (read as [s]), and this distinction is preserved for capital letters
ż hissing consonants in old Czech writing, letter ż in the current Polish
ė in Lithuanian language
latin transliteration of Sanskrit (through ṁ in different systems can be depicted both Anunasik and Anusvara, but the latter can be ṅ)
point in the phonetic transcription of Russian text: a change in the vowel caused by the position after the soft consonant
point
U + 0358.
a͘. in the phonetic transcription of Russian text: change in the vowel caused by the position before soft consonants
tilde over the letter
U + 0303.
ã in some Tilda transcription system (derived from n. and m.) above the vowels mean their nasal pronunciation; In this meaning, it is also used in Portuguese
ñ in Spanish ñ - Soft [ny]
in the politicalionic Greek spelling of Tilda - the font version of the round cap (see above about "clothed accent")
damage over the letter
U + 0304.
ā the main value (coming from the ancient Greek and Latin) is an indication of the longitude of vowels (and group consonants); Sometimes the Greek name is Macron
U-shaped long sign
U + 0306.
ă the main value (coming from the ancient Greek and Latin languages) is an indication of the briefness of vowels; Lat. brevis. (Brevis), English. breve.
j. in Slavic Cyrillic, there is a non-toll character of the vowels and their transition to consonants; C.-Sl. and rus. The name is brief (from the end of the XIX century in the dictionaries also polish). Enters the letter j. , ў (used in the Belarusian language) and some. Dr. In modern Cyrillic fonts, it is usually depicted not as in Greek and Latin.
ӂ in the Moldavian Cyrillic Soviet times, the letter "ӂ" meant the Affripant [J]
ğ in Turkish through ğ denotes the sound close to the Ukrainian g., and in some dialects gaining to complete disappearance
ŭ in Yaiyk, Esperanto U-shaped long sign, unofficially called "Bath" (ESP. "Kuveto"), transforms a vowel u. in a non-voltage sound close to English w.used almost exclusively in difong aŭ. and eŭ., for example: "Aŭroro" ("Zarya"), "EŭROPO" ("Europe")
"Bird" above the letter
U + 030C.
ž , ě hook (Czech. Háček) - a sign of Czech writing, noting hissing and soft consonants, as well as a strongly mitigating pronunciation of the letter ě (usually corresponding to the old Slavic Yatu); Above some letters can look for beauty as an almost adhered apostrophe: Ľ , ď etc.; borrowed into some other writing (in Croatian used in both values); Used in some systems of the Latin transliteration of Russian and other Cyrillic. In English Computer slang since the 1980s, the name appeared for this sign caron. Unclear origin ( caret. + macron.?, carom + oN.?, Lat. Lat. corona.?), which subsequently spread into other languages \u200b\u200band official documents (such as the standard of UNIC).
(-ny sign
Grech.: U + 0314,
Cyrus: U + 0485
ὡ, ῥ thick influence (often corresponds to the initial H-in internationalism): Greek. and C.-sl. Dasia, Lat. spiritus Asper.; Used in the politicalionic Greek spelling and in some old versions of the Church Slavonic
) -Added sign
Grech.: U + 0313,
Cyrus: U + 0486
ὀ, ὠ slim silence: Greek. and C.-sl. Ppiji, Ts.-Sl. also gorcelat. spiritus lenis; Used in the politicalionic Greek spell and in Church Slavonic (nothing means, put over the initial vowel words)
tailor from above
U + 0309.
vietnamese sign of one of the musical tones (Vietn. Dấu Hỏi)
title
U + 0483.
a҃. old and Church Slavonic sign to indicate abbreviated writing words and for alphabetic numbers
apostrophe n " in some phonetic transcription systems: Sign Software Consults: be in love \u003d [l "UB" IT "] or

Unlightened substring signs

point
U + 0323.
various transcription and transliteration systems (semitic languages, languages \u200b\u200bof India, etc.); The substitution point may indicate the group consonants (ṛ, ḷ), cerebral consonants (ḍ, ṭ, ṇ), the same Anunasik with Anusvara, etc.
prank substitution
U + 0326.
ț whistling and hissing in Romanian ( ș , ț )
substituing circle
U + 0325
in some transcription systems (for example, in the reconstruction of Indo-European or Praslavyansky language), a circle under consonant means its syllative character
"Cup" under several letters
U + 035c.
t͜s. in some systems of phonetic transcription sign ͜ Under the lettering means its fusion pronunciation
"Cap" under the letter
U + 032f.
u̯. in some phonetic transcription systems: non-toll sound
underline
U + 0331.
a. in dictionaries can mark emphasis
"Bird" under the letter
U + 032c.
s̬. in MFA - Badge Sign

Unlightened intracting signs

colon after the letter a: in phonetic transcription - a sign of longitude sound (in MFA is used special sign "Triangular colon" :)
point to the right after the letter o · in Latinet for Taiwanese dialect

Funeral signs

horn right and up
U + 031b.
ơ used in Vietnamese

Funny signs

cedilla
U + 0327.
ç comes from Spanish Language (Span. cedilla. [Shadliya] - "Little" Z ""), but now not used there; The most famous for the use of French (FR. cédille. [Sediya]), put under c. In the case when this letter must be denoted by the pronunciation [S] instead of [k]: façade [facade]; It is also used in some other languages \u200b\u200bunder different letters and with different meanings (so, in the Turkish letters c, ç, S, ş Denote by respectively sounds [J], [H], [C] and [W]). In Latvian writing with a lower case g. Steplock turns over and becomes a fast sign: ģ
c-shaped tail
U + 0328.
ę comes from medieval Latin writing, where sign ę was a compact substitute for ligature æ ; from there borrowed by Polish writing and got a name ogonek. [Ogonek] \u003d "Tail"; Polish is used in the letters of nasal vowels ą and ę . From Polish borrowed by other languages \u200b\u200b(in particular, Lithuanian), applies with different letters
tail like u c. or sh ҷ , ӌ used in the 1930s and later when creating Cyrillic writing for various languages \u200b\u200bof the USSR; usually walked to the right and down, but sometimes left and down

Office programs The user applies almost every day, and the most popular today is Microsoft Office. . Popularity is partly due to functionality and ease of operation in applications. Microsoft Office.. And even when new versions are released office packageusers most often stop in already familiar and familiar former versions Package Microsoft Office.. And although the versions already released Microsoft Office 2007. and Microsoft Office 2010.Many are still preferred to use the usual and stable version. Microsoft Office 2003.. Partly such attachment can be explained by the habit, partly in fear of new version With its modified interface, the main one is to use the toolbar with tabs in the form of a tape. Although there is nothing complicant in principle, and it is not completely difficult to figure out, especially already having experience with Microsoft Office.. But we are not talking about it.

Most often the most sought-after from the entire office package is the program Word.. About it and the conversation will go - how to insert alpine and editing signs in Microsoft Office Word.

Working with documents in the program Word. , creating a new or editing created, the user is sometimes necessary to insert into the text some special sign over a string or substress. Not every user knows how to be when, for example, you need to designate square or cubic meters in the text or write a chemical formula. And this applies not only to those who use fresh versions office programs, but also have long been familiar Microsoft Office 2003..

Yes, there is a program Word.ability to create formulas and insert mathematical symbols. If you go to the "Insert" tab on the right part, you can see the items: Formula - you can insert standard mathematical formulas or create your own; The character - will help insert a character that is not on the keyboard.

But more often, it is necessary to simply modify the recorded text for example from 30 m2 by 30 m 2, or a chemical formula, for example, C2N5on write down as it should be - from 2 H 5. I do not know, right, what is this chemical formula and is there such a thing? Just recorded that it came to mind.

For quick change padded signs The shortcut of the Ctrl + Shift + \u003d keys is used, having previously highlight the sign that should be above the string. For strong signs The combination of Ctrl + \u003d is applied.

The same effect can be achieved using the editor. Word.. After after selecting the desired sign on the Home tab, in the "Font" group, click the square in the lower right corner - open the dialog box.

Or press the CTRL + D key combination. In the window that opens, check the checkbox that item you want to apply and click OK.

Everyone who ever worked in the Word program, know how unique and universal it is unique. When working with this program, it may be necessary to submit a number or even a word to a certain extent. This is done easily, but it is worth considering all possible options.

To begin with, I would like to say that the Word 2003 program is already considered quite obsolete, but still relevant among a number of users.

  1. Select our number, or word, and press the right mouse button.
  2. In the pop-up menu, select the "Font" item and click on it.
  3. If you need to choose the font and size you need, and be sure to put a tick near the "Perestnaya" item.

That's all. Now when writing, the font will climb up, and you can set the degree you need.

Degree in Word 2007 and above

IN word version 2007 and above, everything is much simplified.


By the way, you can use hot keys Ctrl + Shift + "+" And after that you can immediately write to degrees without referring to the toolbar once again.


Read also!

To further master the Word programbe sure to read. Vertical text in some documents also have to insert.

Often it is required to convert pDF format in Word. To do this for you, I have not been a problem. Consider a pair of conversion methods.

As in the Word, the frame is written in. Often Frame B. word program It is required for more beautiful design of text, but many do not know how it is implemented.

In Excel, it is easy to format the font to display the front (x 2) and substitution (Al 2 O 3) characters. This can be done highlighting a part of the text in the cell and through the Cell Format dialog box (font ( Ctrl + SHIFT + F) Apply the required formatting of the font. But this approach does not work if there is no meaning in the cell, but formula. And yet, in some cases, there is a way out.

Imagine a fairly exotic task: it is necessary to display numbers in format 225.00 2 and, the value (225.00) may vary, depending on the value of other cells, i.e. The cell contains a formula.

Formatting the font does not help here, we do not have a text string, but formula.

Let's try to use not number 2, symbol 2. This symbol has ASCII code 178.

Function Text ()

In a blank cell, through Insert / Text / Symbolor pushing (in english layoutUsing the digital block on the right on the keyboard), insert the symbol 2. It should be understood that this is not a number, but only a symbol. We highlight it and copy to the clipboard. Next, we write a formula: \u003d Text (225; "# ## 0,00" & "2")By inserting a character in the right place. We obtain the result in the form of text (the text () function returns a text value).

Custom format

You can go to another way - change the cell format on.

Open the window Format cellstab Number, choose ( all formats). And enter the format in the field A type # ## 0.00 2 (after all of it removed and copying the symbol 2 to the clipboard).